Sustainable Education and Digital Transformation
Teachers’ online teaching competencies for sustainable digital education: Evidence from a cross-national survey
Esma Çengel 1 * , Filiz Acar 2
More Detail
1 Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Türkiye & 15 Temmuz Şehitleri Anatolian High School, Düzce, Türkiye
2 Duzce University, Faculty of Education, Düzce, Türkiye
* Corresponding Author
Open Access Full Text (PDF)
ARTICLE INFO

Sustainable Education and Digital Transformation, Online First, Article No: e44144
https://doi.org/10.33902/SEDT.202644144

Article Type: Research Article

Published Online: 18 Mar 2026

Views: 79 | Downloads: 37

ABSTRACT
The rapid expansion of distance education during the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for teachers to develop competencies for designing, implementing, and evaluating online learning. Framed as a capacity-building requirement for sustainable digital transformation in education, this study examined teachers’ online teaching competencies, the extent to which teachers report possessing these competencies, and whether competency levels vary across demographic characteristics. Using a descriptive cross-sectional survey design, data were collected from 606 teachers from Türkiye and several other countries using a validated online teaching competencies scale available in Turkish and English. Descriptive statistics and group comparisons were conducted to examine perceived importance and self-reported competency levels across demographic variables. Results indicate that teachers generally value online teaching competencies and report exhibiting them. Competency importance and possession did not differ significantly by gender, age, school type, or degree level; however, significant differences were observed by country, seniority, and school level. The findings suggest that while core competencies may be broadly recognized, contextual and career-stage factors shape teachers’ perceived readiness for online teaching. Implications are discussed for sustainable professional development, cross-context support strategies, and system-level planning for equitable digital education.
KEYWORDS
cross-national survey COVID-19 digital pedagogy distance education online teaching competencies sustainable digital education teacher professional development
In-text citation: (Çengel & Acar, 2026)
Reference: Çengel, E., & Acar, F. (2026). Teachers’ online teaching competencies for sustainable digital education: Evidence from a cross-national survey. Sustainable Education and Digital Transformation. https://doi.org/10.33902/SEDT.202644144
In-text citation: (1), (2), (3), etc.
Reference: Çengel E, Acar F. Teachers’ online teaching competencies for sustainable digital education: Evidence from a cross-national survey. Sustainable Education and Digital Transformation. 2026. https://doi.org/10.33902/SEDT.202644144
In-text citation: (1), (2), (3), etc.
Reference: Çengel E, Acar F. Teachers’ online teaching competencies for sustainable digital education: Evidence from a cross-national survey. Sustainable Education and Digital Transformation. 2026. https://doi.org/10.33902/SEDT.202644144
In-text citation: (Çengel and Acar, 2026)
Reference: Çengel, Esma, and Filiz Acar. "Teachers’ online teaching competencies for sustainable digital education: Evidence from a cross-national survey". Sustainable Education and Digital Transformation (2026). https://doi.org/10.33902/SEDT.202644144
In-text citation: (Çengel and Acar, 2026)
Reference: Çengel, E., and Acar, F. (2026). Teachers’ online teaching competencies for sustainable digital education: Evidence from a cross-national survey. Sustainable Education and Digital Transformation. https://doi.org/10.33902/SEDT.202644144
In-text citation: (Çengel and Acar, 2026)
Reference: Çengel, Esma et al. "Teachers’ online teaching competencies for sustainable digital education: Evidence from a cross-national survey". Sustainable Education and Digital Transformation, 2026. https://doi.org/10.33902/SEDT.202644144
REFERENCES
  • Ahmad, N.A., Ayub, A.F.M. & Khambari, M.N. (2019). Gender digital divide: digital skills among Malaysian secondary school. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Developmemt, 8(4), 668-687. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v8-i4/6692
  • Alasoluyi, O.E. (2021). Teachers' awareness and competence in the switch from classroom-based to online teaching during COVID-19 pandemic in Lagos, Nigeria. Interdisciplinary Journal of Education Research, 3(2), 23-31. https://doi.org/10.51986/ijer-2021.vol3.02.03
  • Alshwiah, A.A. (2021). Barriers to online learning: adjusting to the 'new normal' during COVID-19. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 3(22), 212-228. https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.1002858
  • Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5(2), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v5i2.1875
  • Anwar, C., Sofyan, H., Ratnaningsih, N., & AM, M. A. (2024). Digital technology practices for vocational teachers in the industrial revolution 4.0: Mediating technology self-efficacy. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 8(1), 172-190. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202424585
  • Araiza,M.J. & Pedraza,E. (2019). Discernment of teachers by gender in the use of ICT in the classroom based on digital competences. Espacios, 40, 21-28.
  • Aranda Garrido, L., DiGiusto Valle, C., & Dumitrache, C.G. (2019). Evaluation of the use of ICT instudents at the University of Malaga: gender differences.Innoedua.International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation, 5(1), 63. https://doi.org/10.24310/innoeduca.2019.v5i1.5175
  • Ardies, J., Maeyer, S., & Gijbels, D. (2015). Students attitudes towards technology. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 25(1), 43-65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-014-9268-x
  • Assareh, A. & Bidokht, M.H. (2011). Barriers to e-teaching and e-learning. Process Computer Science,3, 791-795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2010.12.129
  • Ayaz, C. (2016). Examination of teachers' lifelong learning tendencies in terms of some variables [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Bartın University, Bartın.
  • Aydın, C. (2005). Turkish mentors' perceptions of roles, competencies, and resources for online Teaching. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 6(3), 58-80.
  • Aydın, M., Atabay, M.& Aydın, M. (2021). Determining of online teacher competencies during Covid-19 pandemic. Journal of Distance Education Applications and Research, 7(3), 94-126. https://doi.org/10.51948/auad.910592
  • Badiozaman, I. F. A., & Segar, A. R. (2022). Exploring online teaching competence in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: Insights from Sarawak, Malaysia. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 46(6), 766-779. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.2002284
  • Bao, W. (2020). COVID-19 and online teaching in higher education: A case study of Peking University.Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2(2), 113-115. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.191
  • Bawane, J. & Spector, J. (2009). Prioritization of online instructor roles: Implications for competency-based teacher education programs. Distance Education, 30(3), 383-397. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587910903236536
  • Berge, Z. L. (1995). Facilitating computer conferencing: Recommendations from the field. Educational Technology, 35(1), 22–30.
  • Cabezas- González, M., Casillas- Martín, S., Sanches-Ferreira,M., & Teixeira Diogo, F.L. (2017). Do gender and age affect the level of digital competence? A study with university students. Fonseca Journal of Communication, 15, 109-125. https://doi.org/10.14201/fjc201715109125
  • Cai, Z., Fan, X., & Du, J. (2016). Gender and attitudes toward technology use: A meta-analysis. Computers and Education, 105, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.11.003
  • Can, E. & Gündüz, Y. (2021). Teachers’ virtual classroom management competences. Manisa Celal Bayar University Journal of Social Sciences, 19(3), 49-68. https://doi.org/10.18026/cbayarsos.875435
  • Ceballos, M., Vitale, T., & Gordon, W. R. (2021). Remote continuity of learning and the COVID-19 pandemic: Educators’ self-perceptions of preparedness. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 3(2), 75-89. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.2021271304
  • Cebi, A. & Reisoğlu, İ. (2020). Digital competence: a study from the perspective of pre-serviceteachers in Türkiye. Journal of New Approaches in Educational Research, 9(2), 294-308. https://doi.org/10.7821/naer.2020.7.583
  • Coppola, N., Hiltz, S., & Rotter, N. (2002). Becoming a virtual professor: Pedagogical roles and Asynchronous learning networks. Journal of Management Information Systems, 18(4), 169-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2002.11045703
  • Dennis, B., Watland, P., Pirotte, S. & Verday, N. (2004). Roles and competencies of the e-tutor [Paper presentation]. Network Learning Conference, Lancaster University.
  • Durak, H. Y. & Tekin, S. (2020). Examination of teachers' lifelong learning competencies according to personal and professional variables. Abant İzzet Baysal University Journal of the Faculty of Education, 20(1), 221235.
  • Egan, T. M. & Akdere, M. (2005). Clarifying distance education roles and competencies: Exploring similarities and differences between professional and student-practitioner perspectives. American Journal of Distance Education, 19(2), 87–103. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15389286ajde1902_3
  • Eroğlu, D. T. (2003). Determining the roles and competencies of teachers teaching online courses [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Anadolu University, Eskişehir.
  • Esteve-Mon, F., Llopis, M. & Adell-Segura, J. (2020). Digital competence and computational thinking of student teachers. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning,15(2), 29-41. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v15i02.11588
  • Field, A.P. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. Sage.
  • García-Sampedro, M., Peña-Suárez, E. & Rodríguez-Olay, L. (2021). Online education during the COVID 19 lockdown and school closures in Spain: Teachers’ perceptions. Aloma: revista de Psicologia, Ciències de L'educació i de L'esport, 39(2), 43-51. https://doi.org/10.51698/aloma.2021.39.2.43-51
  • Gold, S. (2001). A constructivist approach to online training for online teachers. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5(1), 35-55. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v5i1.1886
  • Goodyear, P., Salmon, G., Spector, J. M., Steeples, C. & Tickner, S. (2001). Competences for online Teaching: A unique report. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49(1), 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504508
  • Gökbulut, B., Keserci, G. & Akyüz, A. (2021). Digital material design competencies of academicians working at the faculty of education and teachers. Journal of Social Sciences and Education, 4(1), 11-24. https://doi.org/10.53047/josse.917536
  • Grande-de-Prado, M., Ruth Cañón, S. & Canton, I. (2020). Digital competence and gender: teachers in training. Future Internet, 12, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi12110204
  • Guasch, T., Alvarez, I., & Espasa, A. (2010). University teacher competencies in a virtual teaching/learning environment: Analysis of a teacher training experience. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(2), 199-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.02.018
  • Gümüş, M.M. & Kukul, V. (2023). Examination of digital competencies of teachers according to different variables. Journal of Teacher Educational Lifelong Learning, 5(1), 111-129. https://doi.org/10.51535/tell.1231192
  • Hatlevik, I. K. R. & Hatlevik, O.E.(2018).Examining the relationship between teachers’ ICT self-efficacy for educationan purposes, collegial collaboration,lack of facilitation and the use of ICT in teaching practice. Frontiers in Pyschology, 9, 935. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00935
  • Hatos, A., Cosma, M.L. & Clipa, O. (2022). Self-assessed digital competencies of Romanian teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.810359
  • Herrera, R., Delcampo, R. & Ames, M. (1993). A serial approach for translating family science instrumentation. Family Relations, 42, 357-360. https://doi.org/10.2307/585567
  • Huang, R., Tlili, A., Chang, T., Zhang, X., Nascimbeni, F. & Burgos, D. (2020). Disrupted classes, Undisrupted learning during COVID-19 outbreak in China: Application of open educational practices and resources. Smart Learning Environments, 7(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-020-00125-8
  • International Society for Technology in Education [ISTE] (2019). Standards for Educators. Author.
  • Jimenez-Hernandez, D., Gonzalez-Calatayud, V., Torres-Soto, A., Martínez Mayoral, A. & Morales, J. (2020). Digital competence of future secondary school teachers: differences according to gender, age, and branch of knowledge. Sustainability, 12, 9473. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229473
  • Joshi, A., Vinay, M. & Bhaskar, P. (2020). Impact of coronavirus pandemic on the Indian education sector: perspectives of teachers on online teaching and assessments. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 18(2), 205-226. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITSE-06-2020-0087
  • Kamal, T. & Illiyan, A. (2021). School teachers' perception and challenges towards online teaching during COVID-19 pandemic in India: an economic analysis. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, 16(3), 311-325. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAOUJ-10-2021-0122
  • Kavrat, B. (2013). Determination of instructors' competencies in online learning [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Fırat University, Elazığ.
  • Keskin, İ. & Yazar, T. (2015). Examining the digital competencies of teachers in the light of twentyfirst century skills and in the context of lifelong learning. International Journal of Human Sciences, 12(2), 1691-1711. https://doi.org/10.14687/ijhs.v12i2.3503
  • König, J., Jâger-Biela, D.J. & Glutsch, N. (2020). Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19school closure: teacher education and teacher competence effects among early career teachers in Germany. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 608-622. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1809650
  • Kulal, A. & Nayak, A. (2020). A study on perception of teachers and students toward online classes in Dakshina Kannada and Udupi District. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, 15(3), 285–296. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAOUJ-07-2020-0047
  • Li, B. (2022). Ready for online? Exploring EFL teachers' ICT acceptance and ICT literacy during COVID-19 in Mainland China. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 60(1), 196-219. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331211028934
  • López Belmonte, J., Pozo Sánchez, S., Vázquez Cano, E. & López Meneses, E.J. (2020). Analysis of the incidence of age in the digital competence of Spanish pre-university teachers. Revista Fuentes, 22, 75–87. https://doi.org/10.12795/revistafuentes.2020.v22.i1.07
  • Lucas, M., Bem-Haja, P., Siddiq, F., & Moreira, A. (2021). The relation between in -service teachers’ digitalcompetence and personal and contextual factors:What matters most? Computers in Education, 160, 104052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104052
  • Martin, F., Kumar, S., & She, L. (2021). Examining higher education instructor perceptions of roles and competencies in online teaching. Online Learning Journal, 25(4), 267-295. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v25i4.2570
  • Mouchantaf, M. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic: Challenges faced and lessons learned regarding distance learning in Lebanese higher education institutions. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 10, 1259–1266. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1010.11
  • Noori, A. Q., Said, H., Nor, F. M., & Ghani, F. A. (2020). The relationship between university lecturers' Behavior and students' motivation. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(11), 15–22. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.082303
  • OECD. (2023). OECD Digital Education Outlook 2023: Towards an effective digital education ecosystem. https://doi.org/10.1787/c74f03de-en
  • Ong, C. & Lai, J. (2006). Gender influences on children’s computer attitudes andcognitions. Computers in Human Behaviour, 18(2), 135-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(01)00043-7
  • Owusu-Agyeman, Y., Andoh, J. S., & Lanidune, E. (2021). The COVID-19 pandemic and student engagement in online learning: The moderating effect of technology self-efficacy. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 5(4), 119-139. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2021473586
  • Oyedotun, T. D. (2020). Sudden change of pedagogy in education driven by COVID-19: Perspectives and evaluation from a developing country. Research in Globalization, 2, 100029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resglo.2020.100029
  • Özcan, B. & Saraç, L. (2020). Teachers’ roles and competencies in online distance learning during the covid-19 pandemic crisis: a case of physical education teachers. National Education, 49(1), 459-475. https://doi.org/10.37669/milliegitim.787127
  • Paliwal, M. & Singh, A. (2019). Teacher readiness for online teaching-learning during COVID-19 outbreak: a study of Indian institutions of higher education. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 18(3), 403-421. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITSE-07-2020-0118
  • Palloff, R.M. & Pratt, K. (2003). The virtual student: a profile and guide to working with online learners. Jossey-Bass.
  • Perrotta, K. A., & Bohan, C. H. (2020). A reflective study of online faculty teaching experiences in higher education. Journal of Effective Teaching in Higher Education, 3(1), 50–66. https://doi.org/10.36021/jethe.v3i1.9
  • Queiroz, V. & Mustaro, P. N. (2019). Roles and competencies of online teachers. Internet TESL Journal, 9(7), 1-6.
  • Redecker, C. (2017). European framework for the digital competence of educators: DigCompEdu. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2760/159770
  • Richey, R.C., Fields, D.C. & Foxon, M. (2001). Instructional design competencies: The standards. Eric.
  • Sahito, Z., & Vaisanen, P. (2021). Job satisfaction and the motivation of teacher educators towards quality education: a case study approach. Sylvan, 165, 46–64.
  • Sainz, M., Meneses, J., Lopez, J.B.S. & Fabregues, S. (2016). Gender stereotypes and attitudes towards information and communication technology professionals in a sample of Spanish secondary students. Sex Roles,74(3),154-168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0424-2
  • Salmon, G. (2004). E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203465424-12
  • Smith, R.D. (2008). Virtual voices: online teachers' perceptions of online teaching standards and competencies [Unpublished master’s thesis]. George Mason University, Fairfax, VA.
  • Spoel, I., Noroozi, O., Schuurink, E. & Ginkel, S. (2020). Teachers' online teaching expectations and experiences during the Covid-19 pandemic in the Netherlands. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 623-638. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1821185
  • Thach, L. & Murphy, K. (1995): Competencies for distance education professionals. Educational Technology Research and Development, 43(1), 57-79. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02300482
  • Tondeur, J., Aesaert, K., Pynoo,B., van Braak,J., Fraeyman,N., & Erstad,O. (2017). Developing a validated instrument to measure preservice teachers’ ICT competencies: Meeting the demands of the 21st century. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48, 462-472. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12380
  • Ünal, E. (2019). Exploring the web 2.0 technologies awareness, usage frequencies and competencies of preservice teachers and instructors. Bingöl University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 9(17), 553-565. https://doi.org/10.29029/busbed.496655
  • UNESCO. (2020). Theme: COVID-19 and education. Author.
  • UNESCO. (2023, October 18). UNESCO’s ICT competency framework for teachers (ICT-CFT). https://www.unesco.org/en/digital-competencies-skills/ict-cft
  • Varvel, V. (2007). Master online teacher competencies. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 10(1), 1-36.
  • Vázquez-Cano, E., López Meneses, E. & García-Garzón, E. (2017). Differences in basic digital competences between male and female university students of social sciences in Spain. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 14(27), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0065-y
  • Wiesenberg, F., & Hutton, S. (1996). Teaching a graduate program using computer-mediated Conferencing software: Distance education futures. The Journal of Distance Education, 11(1), 83–100.
  • Williams, P. E. (2003). Roles and competencies for distance education programs in higher education institutions. American Journal of Distance Education, 17(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15389286AJDE1701_4
  • Winter, E., Costello, A., O'Brien, M., & Hickey, G., (2021). Teacher's use of technology and the impact of Covid-19. Irish Educational Studies, 40(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2021.1916559
  • Yar, C.Y. Asmuni, A. & Silong, A.D. (2008). Roles and competencies of distance education tutors in a public university. Malaysian Journal of Distance Education, 10(1), 21-39.
  • Yau, H.K. & Cheng, A.I.F. (2012). Gender difference of confidence in using technology for Learning. Journal of Technology Studies,38(2), 74-79. https://doi.org/10.21061/jots.v38i2.a.2
LICENSE
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.